When we study sociology, one of the key thinkers we come across is Talcott Parsons, an American sociologist who was hugely influential in the mid-20th century. Parsons was part of the functionalist tradition, which sees society as a system made up of different parts that work together to keep it stable and functioning.

One of Parsons’ most important contributions is his idea about the difference between particularistic and universalistic values.

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What does that mean?

• Particularistic values: These are rules and expectations that only apply in specific contexts, often within families or small groups. For example, parents may give more privileges to their own children than to others – because those rules are “particular” to the family.
• Universalistic values: These are rules and expectations that apply to everyone in society, regardless of who they are. For example, in school, everyone is judged by the same grading system. Teachers don’t give higher marks just because you’re their favourite – marks are (ideally) based on a universal standard.

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Why does Parsons say universal values are important?

Parsons argued that modern, industrial societies (like the UK or USA) need to run on universalistic standards. Without them, society would be unfair, unequal, and chaotic.

Think about it:

• In pre-industrial societies, people’s lives were based on particularistic values (like kinship and family ties). If your dad was a farmer, you’d probably become a farmer too. Rules depended on your family, status, or community.
• In modern industrial societies, jobs and opportunities are meant to be based on achievement, not family background. Universalistic values (like exam results, qualifications, or legal rights) ensure that everyone has to follow the same rules.

Parsons saw this as crucial because it allowed social mobility (moving up or down the social ladder) and ensured that the most talented people could achieve important roles, not just those who were born into privilege.

What does that mean?

• Particularistic values: These are rules and expectations that only apply in specific contexts, often within families or small groups.
  • Example: At home, your parents might say you don’t need to wash up after dinner because it’s your birthday – a rule that only applies to you. Your sibling might get told off for leaving their plate, but you don’t.
  • Another example: In a friendship group, someone might always be forgiven for being late because “that’s just how they are.” That leniency doesn’t extend to strangers.
• Universalistic values: These are rules and expectations that apply to everyone in society, regardless of who they are.
  • Example: In school exams, everyone has to sit the same paper under the same timed conditions. Teachers can’t make up special rules for certain students (except with official access arrangements like extra time, which are still applied through a universal system).
  • Another example: In a football match, everyone has to follow the same rules of the game – it doesn’t matter if you’re the team captain or the newest player.

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Example in Education

Education is the best place to see the difference:

• At home, a child may be treated as “special” by their parents (particularistic values).
• At school, all students are judged by the same standards, like GCSE grades (universalistic values).

This helps prepare young people for wider society, where they will be judged by their abilities and achievements rather than their family background.

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Teacher Activity: Particularistic vs Universalistic Values

Aim: To help students experience the difference between particularistic and universalistic rules.

Step 1 – The “Particularistic” Game

• Divide the class into small groups.
• In each group, secretly tell the leader to make up a rule that only applies to one or two people in the group (e.g. “Only Sam can speak without raising their hand” or “Ellie’s answers are always worth double points”).
• Play a short quiz or discussion game under these rules.

Step 2 – The “Universalistic” Game

• Now, run the same activity again, but this time give everyone the same rules (e.g. everyone must raise their hand before speaking, each correct answer = 1 point).

Discussion Questions:

• How did it feel to be treated by different standards in the first round?
• Which system felt more fair?
• Which system would work best in a school or society, and why?

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Key Takeaway

Parsons argued that modern societies must run on universalistic values to ensure fairness and stability. While particularistic values still exist in families and close groups, universal rules in education, law, and employment are essential for keeping society meritocratic and functioning. Being able to understand and apply how education systems in particular do this is key for students in showing that they understand the roles and functions of the education system across most A level and GCSE specifications.