The term glass ceiling describes an invisible barrier that prevents women (and often other under-represented groups) from reaching the highest levels of management or leadership in organisations — even when their qualifications and experience are similar to those of men. Though there are no explicit rules saying “women can’t advance further”, invisible structural, cultural and institutional factors stop them.

The phrase was coined by Marilyn Loden in 1978 at a panel discussion for women in the workforce. At that time she challenged the dominant narrative that women simply lacked confidence or self-image; she argued instead that the barrier was external and systemic. Loden described how she, working in HR, observed qualified female colleagues repeatedly being passed over for promotion, not because of lack of ability, but because of organisational culture and bias.

In her view, the “ceiling” is glass because you can often “see” the top roles, they appear visible and reachable, but you hit an invisible barrier: you can look up, you may even be at the threshold, but you can’t break through. Loden argued this barrier is maintained by stereotypes, male-normed leadership assumptions, structures that assume the worker is male with fewer caring responsibilities, and lack of access to informal networks.

Why the concept matters in sociology

From a sociological perspective, the glass ceiling highlights how gender inequality is embedded in institutions and structures rather than only being a matter of individual choice or ability. It shows that despite legal changes and increased female participation in the workforce, women still often face a “second shift”, interrupted career trajectories due to caring-roles, stereotyping, less access to mentoring, exclusion from informal networks, and subtle bias. All of these combine to reproduce inequality even when overt discrimination is formally illegal.

It also ties into the idea of the “leaky pipeline”: women may enter jobs in large numbers, but progressively fewer reach senior posts. The glass ceiling is a metaphorical way of describing this phenomenon of stagnation or drop-off at a certain level.

Key factors behind the glass ceiling

Based on Loden’s work and subsequent research, several mechanisms help explain the glass ceiling effect:

1. Stereotypes and assumptions: Women are assumed to lack the leadership “presence” or ambition stereotypically associated with men. Loden noted that many women were told to “smile more” or dress differently rather than having their leadership potential taken seriously.
2. Organisational culture and norms: Organisations tend to be built around male-career patterns (long hours, uninterrupted service, mobility), so women who take career breaks for caring may be penalised or sidelined. Loden argued that the structures assume a male breadwinner and that women will have a partner supporting their career.
3. Access to informal networks and mentors: Much promotion relies on informal networks, sponsorship, “who you know”, and opportunities that are not advertised formally. Women may be excluded from male-dominated networks and hence miss out. While Loden’s early work focused on cultural barriers, more recent UK research supports this. For example, the organisational-level factors identified by the Chartered Institute of Personnel & Development (CIPD) include: lack of flexible working, weak sponsorship, career architectures not designed for diversity.
4. Cumulative disadvantage and bias: Numerous small biases accumulate: lower-valued assignments, less training, fewer stretch roles, penalised when “face time” is required. Over time, these small differences become large inequalities. A recent modelling study shows how even small biases and network homophily (people selecting/promoting similar people) can lock women out of top hierarchies.

Contemporary UK evidence

The Fawcett Society, a major UK gender equality charity, has produced influential research showing that women remain significantly under-represented in top roles. For example, their Sex & Power Index (2022) found that women are outnumbered approximately 2:1 in senior roles in many sectors; women of colour are particularly under-represented, often absent from the very top levels (e.g., Supreme Court, FTSE 100 CEOs).

In business, although women’s representation on boards has improved (e.g., 43% of board roles in FTSE 350 companies are now filled by women) this progress hides the fact that many women hold non-executive or non-decision-making roles; executive and CEO posts remain heavily male-dominated.

Another UK research angle is the so-called “second glass ceiling” faced by older women (menopause, caring responsibilities). For example, a UK study by BSI found that 54% of UK women would feel uncomfortable raising health/menopause issues with their manager; 29% expected to leave work before retirement with 42% citing health/well-being reasons; which suggests that age, health and caring-roles form further barriers to continued progression.

As for UK Feminista, while their primary focus is on tackling sexism in schools, gender stereotypes and sexual exploitation, their work highlights how early gendered socialisation plays a part in limiting aspirations – which in turn contributes to later barriers like the glass ceiling.

How Loden’s insights relate to the UK context

Loden’s original point — that the barrier is not the women themselves but organisational and cultural structures — remains highly relevant. In the UK, despite decades of equality legislation, women still face invisible barriers. The point about the ceiling being glass (i.e., see-through but unbroken) holds: women can see senior roles, aspire to them, yet structural forces stop them.

Loden also emphasised the need for women in leadership to advocate for change and bring other women up — this idea resonates in UK campaigns (e.g., Fawcett Society’s call for women in power, not just entry-level representation).

Implications for policy and sociology

From a sociological viewpoint the glass ceiling shows how gender inequality is reproduced via institutions, not just individual failings. It underlines the importance of changing organisational cultures, career architectures, mentoring frameworks, flexible working and values about leadership. For UK policy, it suggests that simply increasing numbers is not enough if real power remains in male-dominated roles. The Fawcett research shows that until women of colour, older women, and those with caring responsibilities are represented, equality remains incomplete.

Concluding summary

In summary:

• The glass ceiling is an invisible barrier preventing women’s advancement to top leadership; coined by Marilyn Loden in 1978.
• It is built from stereotypes, organisational norms built around male-career patterns, lack of access to informal networks, and cumulative bias.
• UK evidence (from the Fawcett Society and others) shows women remain under-represented in senior roles, especially women of colour and older women, despite improvements at board level.
• The concept remains relevant: seeing the roles but not being able to enter them, rather than absence of ambition or ability.
• Sociologically, it highlights how gender inequality persists in the structures of work and power, not just at the level of individual attitudes.
• For students of sociology, the glass ceiling is a powerful example of structural barriers, and how “equal opportunity” alone does not guarantee equal outcomes.

References:

BBC News. 100 Women: ‘Why I invented the glass ceiling phrase’. 2017. Available at: https://feeds.bbci.co.uk/news/world-42026266

History News Network. She coined the term “glass ceiling”. 2003. Available at: https://www.historynewsnetwork.org/article/she-coined-the-term-glass-ceiling

The National. Gender equality pioneer says glass ceiling still intact. 2018. Available at: https://www.thenationalnews.com/business/gender-equality-pioneer-says-glass-ceiling-still-intact-1.710568

Personnel Today. Marilyn Loden on 40 years of the ‘glass ceiling’. 2018. Available at: https://www.personneltoday.com/hr/marilyn-loden-40-years-since-glass-ceiling-phrase-made-popular/

CIPD. Breaking through the glass ceiling – what can smooth the path to progress? 2022. Available at: https://www.cipd.org/en/knowledge/bitesize-research/glass-ceiling/

O’Brien, D., & colleagues. Insidious Nonetheless: How Small Effects and Hierarchical Norms Create and Maintain Gender Disparities in Organizations. 2021. arXiv. Available at: https://arxiv.org/abs/2110.04196

iKNOW Politics. UK: Sex & power 2022 Index. 2022. Available at: https://iknowpolitics.org/en/learn/knowledge-resources/uk-sex-power-2022-index

Financial Times. FTSE 350 on track to miss 40% target for female executives. 2022. Available at: https://www.ft.com/content/dfb8ebef-677d-4962-92ab-d8c43890e09b

BSI Group. Most UK women want businesses to break the ‘second glass ceiling’. 2023. Available at: https://www.bsigroup.com/en-IE/insights-and-media/media-centre/press-releases/2023/july/second-glass-ceiling/

UK Feminista. About UK Feminista. Available at: https://ukfeminista.org.uk/about-us/

The Independent. Gender equality progress ‘glacial’ as women occupy less than a third of top UK jobs. 2022. Available at: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/gender-equality-women-third-top-jobs-b1997348.html