When sociologists study society, they don’t just rely on opinions or guesses. Instead, they carry out research to collect evidence about how people behave, think, and interact. This research follows different methods, and those methods are guided by different theories about how society works.
If you are studying sociology for the first time, research methods can feel confusing. There are lots of new words, and sociologists often disagree with each other. However, once you understand the basic ideas, research methods become one of the most interesting parts of the subject because they show how sociologists try to understand the real world.
In this post, we will introduce:
- the relationship between theory and methods
- the two main theoretical approaches: positivism and interpretivism
- key research concepts you need for exams, such as validity and reliability
The relationship between theory and methods
In sociology, theory refers to how sociologists see society and human behaviour. Methods are the tools they use to collect data, such as questionnaires, interviews, or observations.
The key idea is simple:
What sociologists believe about society affects how they choose to study it.
For example, if a sociologist believes society can be measured scientifically, they are likely to use surveys and statistics. If they believe society is shaped by meanings and experiences, they are more likely to use interviews or observations.
This link between theory and methods is central to understanding research methods and is something examiners expect you to explain clearly.
Positivism: Studying society scientifically
Positivism is a theoretical approach that believes society should be studied in a scientific way, similar to subjects like biology or chemistry. Positivists argue that human behaviour is shaped by social forces such as class, gender, or education, and that these forces can be measured.
Patterns and trends
Positivists look for patterns (repeated behaviours) and trends (changes over time).
Example:
A sociologist might find a pattern showing that students from wealthier families achieve higher exam results.
They might also identify a trend showing that university attendance has increased over the last 30 years.
These patterns and trends help positivists explain how society works on a large scale.
Objectivity and value freedom
Positivists believe research should be objective, meaning it is not influenced by the researcher’s personal feelings or opinions. They also aim for value freedom, where the sociologist keeps their own beliefs separate from the research.
Example:
A researcher studying crime rates uses official police statistics rather than personal opinions about criminals.
Quantitative data
Positivist research usually produces quantitative data, which is data in the form of numbers.
Example:
A questionnaire asking:
- “How many hours do you revise per week?”
- “What is your household income bracket?”
These answers can be turned into percentages, charts, and graphs, making it easier to compare large groups of people.
Positivists argue that this type of data is reliable and allows sociologists to make general statements about society.
Interpretivism: Understanding meanings and experiences
Interpretivism takes a very different view. Interpretivists argue that society is not something that can be measured like a science experiment. Instead, it is created by people’s meanings, choices, and interactions.
Rather than focusing on large-scale statistics, interpretivists focus on individuals and small groups.
Meanings and experiences
Interpretivists want to understand how people see the world and how they interpret their own lives.
Example:
Instead of measuring exam results, an interpretivist might interview students about how exam pressure makes them feel.
Verstehen and empathy
A key idea in interpretivism is verstehen, which means empathetic understanding. This involves trying to see the world from the point of view of the people being studied.
Example:
A sociologist studying homelessness listens carefully to people’s life stories to understand their experiences, rather than judging them.
Rapport
To gain honest and detailed answers, interpretivist researchers often try to build rapport — a trusting relationship with participants.
Example:
If a researcher is studying youth culture, they might spend time getting to know young people so they feel comfortable speaking openly.
Subjectivity and researcher imposition
Interpretivists accept that research is subjective, meaning it is influenced by the researcher’s perspective. They are also aware of researcher imposition, where researchers might accidentally impose their own ideas onto participants.
Example:
A middle-class researcher might wrongly assume a working-class student dislikes school, even if this is not true.
Reflexivity
Because of this, interpretivists stress reflexivity. This means researchers should reflect on how their own background, gender, class, or beliefs might affect the research.
Qualitative data
Interpretivist research produces qualitative data, which is descriptive and based on words rather than numbers.
Example:
Interview answers such as:
“School makes me feel anxious and under constant pressure.”
Interpretivists argue this data is rich and detailed, giving a deeper understanding of social life.
Key research concepts you need to know
No matter which approach is used, sociologists judge research using key concepts. These concepts often appear in exams.
Validity
Validity refers to whether a study truly measures what it claims to measure.
Example:
An in-depth interview about bullying is high in validity because it captures real feelings and experiences, not just yes/no answers.
Interpretivist methods are often seen as more valid.
Reliability
Reliability refers to whether research can be repeated and get the same results.
Example:
A questionnaire with fixed questions that produces similar results each time is reliable.
Positivist methods are usually seen as more reliable.
Representativeness
A study is representative if the sample reflects the wider population.
Example:
A study of education that only surveys private school students is not representative of all students in the UK.
Generalisability
Generalisability refers to whether findings can be applied to society as a whole.
Example:
If a large, representative survey shows most teenagers use social media daily, the results can be generalised to most young people.
Bringing it all together
Research methods are not just about techniques — they are about how sociologists see the world. Positivists believe society can be measured scientifically and focus on numbers, patterns, and trends. Interpretivists believe society must be understood through meanings, experiences, and empathy.
Both approaches have strengths and weaknesses, and sociology is stronger because it includes both. As you continue studying, you will learn how to compare these approaches in essays and apply key concepts like validity and reliability to real research examples.
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