Functionalists argue that identity forms through the internalisation of shared norms and values. Agencies such as the family, education, religion, peers and work help create value consensus and social integration, with Durkheim and Parsons emphasising social order and stable role learning.

Marxists see culture and identity as shaped by class relations. The dominant ideology of the ruling class is spread through institutions in the superstructure, helping maintain social control, class inequality and acceptance of capitalism. Bowles and Gintis apply this clearly to education through correspondence theory.

Neo-Marxists develop Marxism by focusing on hegemony, ideology and resistance. The media and other institutions help shape consent, but subcultures can also challenge dominant meanings. Gramsci, Althusser, Willis, and Hall and Jefferson are central here.

Interactionists argue that identity is formed through social interaction. Meanings are negotiated in face-to-face situations through symbols, labels, impression management and role-taking. The self is not fixed but shaped in interaction, especially through peers and everyday encounters.

Feminists argue that gender identity is socially constructed through patriarchal expectations. Family life, media representations, work and wider culture reproduce gender scripts and inequalities. Oakley, Delphy and Leonard, and Wolf help show how femininity and masculinity are learned and controlled.

Postmodernists argue that identity is no longer fixed by one clear structure such as class, religion or tradition. Media saturation, globalisation, hybridity and cultural flows create more fluid, reflexive and diverse identities, with Strinati, Giddens, Beck and Bauman all linked to this view.