Robert Miles is an important sociologist for Cambridge OCR A Level Sociology because he helps students think about the relationship between ethnicity, racism, class and capitalism. His work is especially useful when studying ethnic inequality because it moves beyond simple ideas about prejudice and asks a deeper sociological question: how does capitalism help to create and maintain racial divisions within the working class?
Miles is often linked to a Marxist approach to ethnic inequality. However, he does not simply repeat traditional Marxism. Instead, he develops it by showing how racism can divide workers and help reproduce inequality in capitalist societies.
Who was Robert Miles?
Robert Miles was a sociologist best known for his work on racism, migration and labour markets. He was critical of the idea that “race” should be treated as a fixed biological fact. Instead, he argued that race is a social construction.
This means that so-called racial categories are not natural or scientific. They are created by society and given meaning through history, politics and social relationships.
This is a key starting point for understanding his work. Miles is not saying that race is biologically real. He is saying that people are racialised by society, and that this process has real social consequences.
What does racialisation mean?
A central concept in Miles’ work is racialisation.
Racialisation
Racialisation is the process by which individuals or groups are given meanings and labels based on supposed biological or cultural differences.
For example, people may be treated as “different” because of skin colour, language, religion, nationality or ancestry. These differences are then used to justify stereotypes, exclusion or unequal treatment.
Miles argued that racialisation is a social process, not a biological truth. In other words, society creates racial categories and attaches meanings to them.
This is important because it shifts the focus away from the idea that race is natural and towards the idea that race is something society does.
What are racialised class fractions?
This is the main idea students need to understand.
Racialised class fractions
Miles argued that the working class is not always united. Instead, capitalism can divide workers into different sections or class fractions, and some of these sections become racialised.
A class fraction is a subsection within a broader class position. So, instead of thinking of the working class as one single united group, Miles suggests that it can be split into smaller groups with different experiences, opportunities and treatment.
When one of these groups is treated differently on the basis of ethnicity or supposed race, it becomes a racialised class fraction.
So, Miles is arguing that:
- people may share a similar class position
- but they do not always experience that class position in the same way
- racialisation can divide the working class
- some groups become concentrated in worse jobs, lower pay or more insecure work
- this weakens class unity and helps capitalism continue
Why does Miles link this to capitalism?
Miles takes a broadly Marxist view. He argues that capitalism benefits when workers are divided rather than united.
If workers see each other as racial or ethnic rivals rather than as people with shared class interests, they are less likely to act together against inequality and exploitation.
This benefits employers and the capitalist system because:
- it helps keep wages low
- it creates competition between groups of workers
- it justifies unequal treatment
- it weakens working-class solidarity
- it can make exploitation appear normal or deserved
For Miles, racism is not just about individual hatred or ignorance. It is tied to economic structures and to the way labour is organised in capitalist societies.
Labour markets and racialisation
Miles’ work is especially useful when looking at the labour market.
He argues that some ethnic minority groups can become concentrated in particular types of work:
- low-paid jobs
- insecure jobs
- dirty or dangerous work
- jobs with limited promotion
- work that is avoided by more privileged groups
This is not because of biology or natural ability. Instead, it happens because social and economic systems place some groups at a disadvantage.
Employers may see some groups as a source of cheap labour. At the same time, wider society may racialise those groups and justify their lower position.
This means that economic exploitation and racism can work together.
An example of Miles’ argument
A simple way to understand Miles is to imagine a labour market where migrant workers or minority ethnic workers are concentrated in the least secure and lowest-paid jobs.
A Miles-style explanation would not just say:
“these workers are poor because they are migrants”
Instead, it would say:
- capitalism creates demand for cheap and flexible labour
- some groups are recruited into these jobs
- those groups are then racialised and seen as different
- this helps justify why they are concentrated in poorer conditions
- other workers may come to see them as competition
- the working class becomes divided
This is what Miles means by racialised class fractions.
How is this different from older ideas about race?
Miles was critical of older sociological approaches that treated race as if it were a fixed and obvious category.
He argued that sociologists should be careful not to reproduce racial thinking by acting as though race is natural.
Instead, the real question should be:
How are racial categories created and used in society?
This makes his work more sophisticated than explanations that simply describe racial inequality without examining how race itself is socially produced.
Miles and ethnicity
Although Miles often focuses on race and racialisation, his work is also very relevant to ethnicity.
Ethnic groups can be stereotyped, excluded or treated as culturally different in ways that overlap with racialisation. In modern societies, these processes often involve both:
- assumptions about physical appearance
- assumptions about culture, religion or nationality
So for OCR students, Miles is useful because he helps explain why ethnic inequality is not just about personal prejudice. It is also about social structures, labour markets and class divisions.
Why is Miles useful for understanding ethnic inequality?
Miles is useful because he gives a sociological explanation of how ethnic inequality can be linked to class and capitalism.
His work helps students explain:
- why some ethnic groups are concentrated in poorer work
- why racism can divide workers
- why inequality is not just about attitudes
- how labour markets can reproduce ethnic disadvantage
- why class and ethnicity often overlap
This makes his work especially relevant for questions about:
- employment
- poverty
- class inequality
- discrimination
- life chances
Key strengths of Miles’ work
1. It links ethnicity to class
Miles is useful because he does not treat ethnicity as separate from wider economic structures. He shows how class and ethnicity can interact.
2. It explains division within the working class
Traditional Marxism can sometimes sound as if the working class is one united group. Miles improves on this by showing that it is often divided.
3. It treats race as socially constructed
This is an important strength because it avoids biological explanations and instead focuses on how society creates racial meanings.
4. It explains how capitalism may benefit from racism
Miles shows that racial divisions are not accidental. They can help maintain inequality and weaken solidarity.
Criticisms of Miles
Like all sociological theories, Miles can be criticised.
1. Too focused on class
Some critics argue that Miles explains too much in terms of capitalism and class. Not all racism can be reduced to labour market needs.
For example, cultural prejudice, nationalism or religious hostility may also matter.
2. May underplay identity and culture
Ethnic groups are not only class fractions. They also have identities, histories, cultures and communities. Miles can sometimes seem too economic in his explanation.
3. Does not fully explain differences between ethnic groups
Not all minority ethnic groups experience the same labour market position. Some groups may experience upward mobility, educational success or occupational diversity. This means ethnic inequality is not uniform.
4. Feminist criticism
Feminists might argue that Miles pays too little attention to gender. Ethnic minority women may face a combination of class inequality, racism and sexism, which his theory does not always fully develop.
How could you use Miles in an exam answer?
If you get a question on ethnic inequality, you could use Miles to argue that:
- ethnic inequality is linked to capitalism
- employers may use some groups as cheap labour
- racialisation helps justify inequality
- the working class can be divided into racialised class fractions
- this weakens solidarity and supports capitalist interests
You could then evaluate him by saying:
- ethnicity is not only shaped by class
- other sociologists would focus more on culture, identity or discrimination
- gender and age may also shape ethnic inequality
- different ethnic groups have different experiences, so Miles may be too general
Example exam-style paragraph
Miles provides a Marxist explanation of ethnic inequality through the idea of racialised class fractions. He argues that capitalism can divide the working class into different sections, and some of these sections become racialised. This means that certain groups are treated as ethnically or racially different and are often concentrated in lower-paid, insecure or less desirable jobs. This benefits capitalism because it provides a supply of cheap labour and weakens working-class unity. However, Miles can be criticised for focusing too heavily on class, as not all ethnic inequality can be explained by labour market structures alone. Cultural prejudice, religion, gender and discrimination may also shape life chances.
Key terms to learn
Racialisation
The social process of attaching racial meanings to groups.
Social construction
The idea that something is created by society rather than being natural or biological.
Class fraction
A subgroup within a wider social class.
Racialised class fraction
A part of the working class that is socially constructed and treated as racially different, often facing distinct disadvantages.
Labour market
The system through which workers find employment and employers recruit labour.
Capitalism
An economic system based on private ownership, profit and wage labour.
Final judgement
Miles is a very useful sociologist for Cambridge OCR A Level Sociology because he helps students connect ethnic inequality, class and capitalism. His idea of racialised class fractions shows that racism is not just about personal prejudice. It can also be built into labour markets and wider social structures.
His work is especially strong because it explains how the working class can be divided and how these divisions may benefit capitalism. However, it is not a complete explanation on its own. Ethnic inequality is also shaped by gender, identity, culture, religion, discrimination and social policy.
Overall, Miles is best used as a strong Marxist-informed explanation of how class and racialisation work together to produce inequality.
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