Functionalist sociologists tend to see youth subcultures as functional for both young people and society as a whole. They argue that growing up brings challenges, and subcultures help young people cope with these changes while maintaining social order.
Talcott Parsons
Parsons argued that youth is a “transitional stage” between childhood and adulthood. In traditional societies, this transition was often short and marked by rites of passage (such as marriage or initiation ceremonies). In modern, complex societies, however, this stage has lengthened.
Youth subcultures provide a way of bridging the gap between the ascribed status of childhood (given by family) and the achieved status of adulthood (earned through education or work). By spending time with peer groups, young people learn independence and new adult roles. For Parsons, this process is necessary for maintaining social stability.
S.N. Eisenstadt
Eisenstadt saw youth culture as giving young people a chance to develop a shared identity and sense of belonging separate from their parents. Peer groups allow young people to test boundaries, experiment with independence, and manage the strains of leaving childhood behind.
Rather than being a problem for society, youth subcultures actually help reduce intergenerational conflict by providing a “safety valve” for young people’s frustrations. By finding identity in subcultural groups, young people are integrated into wider society more smoothly.
Albert Cohen – Status Frustration
Cohen focused on working-class boys in education. He argued that the school system measures success against middle-class values, such as academic achievement and conformity. Working-class boys often struggle to achieve in this system, leading to status frustration.
In response, they form delinquent subcultures that reject mainstream values and create their own — valuing toughness, street smarts, and deviance. Behaviours like vandalism, fighting, and truancy are not random but carry status within the group. Subcultures, therefore, provide an alternative route to success and respect.
Cloward and Ohlin – Illegitimate Opportunity Structures
Cloward and Ohlin agreed with Cohen that subcultures arise when opportunities for success are blocked, but they argued that not all deviant subcultures are the same. Depending on the opportunities available in an area, three types may form:
- Criminal subcultures – young people gain status through organised crime networks, e.g. drug dealing.
- Conflict subcultures – in unstable areas without established crime, young people turn to violence and gang rivalry.
- Retreatist subcultures – those who fail in both mainstream and criminal routes may “drop out,” often turning to drugs and alcohol.
This approach shows how local structures and opportunities shape the form youth subcultures take.
Walter Miller – Focal Concerns
Miller argued that working-class boys are not simply reacting to blocked opportunities, but instead grow up with their own distinct set of values, which he called focal concerns. These include:
- Toughness – being physically strong and masculine.
- Smartness – being witty or streetwise.
- Excitement – seeking thrills and risk-taking.
- Trouble – acceptance that conflict with authority is likely.
These focal concerns can sometimes lead to deviance, but they are part of working-class culture itself, not just a reaction to middle-class dominance.
Evaluation
- Strengths: Functionalist theories explain why youth subcultures emerge at a particular life stage and why working-class subcultures often show patterned forms of deviance. They also highlight the role of peer groups in socialisation.
- Weaknesses: Critics argue these theories are deterministic (assuming young people are driven by structure, not choice). They also neglect female youth subcultures and ignore creativity, fun, and style, which Marxists and postmodernists highlight.
You can download a summary sheet of the functionalist view of youth subcultures from the link below.
References
- Parsons, T. (1962) Social Structure and Personality. New York: Free Press.
- Eisenstadt, S.N. (1956) From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure. Glencoe: Free Press.
- Cohen, A.K. (1955) Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang. New York: Free Press.
- Cloward, R. & Ohlin, L. (1961) Delinquency and Opportunity. New York: Free Press.
- Miller, W.B. (1962) Culture and Delinquency. Glencoe: Free Press.