Sylvia Walby is one of the UK’s most influential feminist sociologists. She has written extensively on gender inequality, patriarchy, globalisation, and violence against women. Her theory of patriarchy as a system of social structures and practices is a cornerstone of contemporary feminist sociology.

In her book Theorizing Patriarchy (1990), Walby argued that patriarchy should not be seen as just individual men dominating individual women, but as a set of interlocking structures embedded in society. She identified six structures of patriarchy, which shape women’s lives in both the public and private spheres. This makes her work highly exam-relevant because it shows how the family links to wider society, and it moves beyond older feminist accounts by being multi-dimensional.

2. Walby’s definition of patriarchy

Walby defines patriarchy as:

“a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women.”

Key points for AO1:

  • It is a system (not just individual attitudes).
  • It is structural (built into social institutions like the family, workplace, and state).
  • It involves both private and public forms (e.g., domestic life and employment).

3. The Six Structures of Patriarchy

(i) The Household (Domestic Labour)

  • Walby highlights how women’s unpaid domestic work maintains men’s privilege.
  • The family is a site of exploitation: women are responsible for childcare, housework, and emotional labour.
  • This ties into earlier feminist research such as Ann Oakley’s (1974) study of housewives, which showed that housework was monotonous and unrewarded.
  • Walby sees the household as a core private sphere where women’s subordination is reproduced.

Evaluation:

  • Strong because it highlights invisible unpaid work.
  • However, some critics argue this underplays men’s increasing domestic contributions (e.g., Gershuny’s evidence of gradual “lagged adaptation”).

(ii) Paid Work (Employment)

  • Women face occupational segregation (concentration in “feminised” sectors like care, clerical and service work).
  • There is a persistent gender pay gap in the UK (still around 14–15% in the 2020s).
  • Women are over-represented in part-time jobs, often due to childcare responsibilities.

UK evidence:

  • UK Labour Force Surveys show women disproportionately in low-paid, insecure work.
  • Feminist labour research highlights the “double burden” of paid and unpaid work.

Evaluation:

  • Strong for showing patriarchy embedded in economic structures.
  • However, critics note improvements in women’s labour market participation and professional success (liberal feminists argue barriers are eroding).

(iii) The State

  • Walby argued that the state historically supported patriarchy through laws and policies that restricted women’s opportunities.
  • Example: restrictions on contraception and divorce before the 1970s reinforced women’s dependence on men.
  • Even after legal reforms (Equal Pay Act, Sex Discrimination Act, Equality Act), the state still reinforces gender inequalities (e.g., limited affordable childcare, underfunded domestic violence services).

Evaluation:

  • Highlights the role of government in either reinforcing or challenging patriarchy.
  • Critics (especially liberal feminists) argue the UK state has become more progressive over time.

(iv) Male Violence

  • Walby identified male violence against women (especially domestic abuse and sexual assault) as a key patriarchal structure.
  • This keeps women in a state of fear and reinforces male dominance in the home and public spaces.
  • Walby co-authored UK research using the British Crime Survey, showing domestic violence is widespread and gendered.

Evaluation:

  • Strong for linking feminist theory to empirical data.
  • Some critics argue Walby generalises women’s experiences (not all women are equally at risk — intersectional feminists highlight ethnicity, class, and age differences).

(v) Sexuality

  • Patriarchal norms shape and control women’s sexuality.
  • Walby argues that sexual double standards exist: women are judged negatively for behaviours that men are praised for.
  • Media and culture often police female sexuality while celebrating male sexual freedom.

UK evidence:

  • Studies of UK youth culture (e.g., Sue Lees’ work on “slags” and “drags”) show how sexual reputations regulate young women’s behaviour.
  • Contemporary debates on online harassment and image-based abuse show these issues persist.

Evaluation:

  • Highlights how patriarchy is cultural as well as material.
  • Critics note growing shifts (e.g., greater sexual freedom, LGBTQ+ visibility) which challenge traditional controls.

(vi) Cultural Institutions

  • Walby included religion, media, and education as cultural structures that reinforce patriarchal norms.
  • Media often portrays women in stereotypical or sexualised ways (e.g., Mulvey’s male gaze).
  • Schooling transmits gender roles — “hidden curriculum” teaches girls and boys different expectations.

UK evidence:

  • Analyses of UK advertising, school subject choices, and media representation show gendered patterns.

Evaluation:

  • Valuable because it expands patriarchy beyond family/work into symbolic and cultural systems.
  • Critics argue that culture is not uniformly patriarchal: feminism, media diversity, and social change have challenged these roles.

4. Walby’s shift from private to public patriarchy

Walby argued there has been a historical shift:

  • Private patriarchy (family, household, direct male control over women) dominated in the past.
  • Public patriarchy (employment, state, institutions) increasingly dominates today.

This means women are less confined to the home but face new inequalities in workplaces and institutions.

Example: More women are in paid work, but they are concentrated in lower-paid sectors and face glass ceilings.

5. Evaluation of Walby’s theory

Strengths:

  • Multi-dimensional: avoids reducing patriarchy to just class (as in Marxist feminism) or just male power (as in radical feminism).
  • Empirical: backed by UK research on work, domestic violence, education, etc.
  • Dynamic: recognises change over time (shift from private to public patriarchy).
  • Widely used: her framework is taught in A-level and beyond, showing lasting influence.

Weaknesses:

  • Some critics argue six structures are too broad and overlap (risk of being descriptive not explanatory).
  • Intersectional feminists say Walby doesn’t fully integrate race, ethnicity, and sexuality — later she acknowledged this, but early work focused mainly on gender.
  • Postmodern feminists argue her “grand theory” is too rigid and doesn’t account for diversity in individual choices and family forms.

6. Applying Walby to exam questions

For AQA / OCR A-level, Walby is highly useful in questions on feminism, patriarchy, and family life:

  • Use her six structures as a framework to organise your answer.
  • Apply UK evidence: Oakley on housework, Gershuny on time-use, Lees on sexuality, British Crime Survey on violence.
  • Evaluate with liberal, Marxist, radical and intersectional critiques.

Example exam application:

  • “Evaluate feminist explanations of the role of the family.”
    → Walby: family as part of household/domestic labour + violence.
    → Strength: links to other structures.
    → Weakness: underplays change or diversity (intersectional/postmodern critiques).

7. Conclusion

Sylvia Walby’s theory of the six structures of patriarchy remains one of the most influential frameworks for understanding gender inequality in the UK. By identifying household labour, paid work, the state, male violence, sexuality, and cultural institutions as interlocking structures, she shows that the family is not an isolated site of oppression but part of a wider patriarchal system. For A-level sociology students, her work provides rich AO1 material, strong links to UK evidence, and clear AO3 evaluation points.

You can download a teaching PowerPoint on the work of Walby from the link below:

Walby Theorising PatriarchyDownload