Talcott Parsons (1902–1979) was one of the most influential functionalist sociologists of the mid-20th century. His work provides a structural functionalist view of the family, seeing it as a vital social institution that performs essential functions for individuals and society. Parsons’ theories on the impact of industrialisation, the sexual division of labour, and the functions of the family are central to the A-level Sociology topic of Families and Households for both AQA and OCR.
Parsons’ Functionalist Perspective
Functionalism views society as a system made up of interdependent parts, each performing functions that maintain stability and order. Within this framework, the family is seen as a key social institution responsible for socialising children and supporting adults so society can run smoothly. Parsons argued that the family adapts to the needs of society, meaning its structure and roles change as wider social and economic conditions evolve.
The Impact of Industrialisation on the Family
Parsons’ most influential idea is that industrialisation transformed the family.
- Pre-industrial society: Parsons claimed that families were typically extended families, with several generations living together. This structure suited an agricultural economy, as extended kin could provide labour, welfare, and economic support.
- Industrial society: With the growth of factories, urbanisation, and wage labour, the nuclear family became more functional. Parsons called this the “structurally isolated nuclear family”, meaning it no longer relied on extended kin for survival.
Why did the nuclear family become dominant?
- Geographical mobility: In an industrial economy, workers needed to move to where jobs were available. Nuclear families, being smaller, were more mobile than large extended families.
- Social mobility: Industrial society rewards individuals for skills and achievements (achieved status), rather than family background (ascribed status). Nuclear families are better suited because they place less emphasis on inherited roles and obligations.
Evaluation:
- Historical research by Peter Laslett (1972) suggests that the nuclear family was already common in pre-industrial England, challenging Parsons’ claim that industrialisation caused the shift.
- Michael Anderson (1980) found that extended families persisted well into industrialisation in some areas, particularly among working-class groups, showing families adapt flexibly rather than following a single pattern.
Parsons on the Division of Labour
Parsons argued that in the modern nuclear family, roles became specialised and complementary:
- Instrumental role: Performed by the husband/father – focused on paid work, providing income, and acting as breadwinner.
- Expressive role: Performed by the wife/mother – focused on childcare, emotional support, and nurturing family members.
Parsons believed this division of labour was biologically based and functional. Men were naturally more suited to paid work, while women were better at nurturing roles. This arrangement provided warm bath theory – the family acts as a “warm bath” for the breadwinner, providing emotional support and stress relief, enabling men to return to work and contribute to society.
Evaluation:
- Feminists criticise Parsons for being sexist and outdated, reinforcing patriarchal roles and ignoring women’s participation in the workforce.
- Young and Willmott (1973) argue that families have become more symmetrical, with men and women sharing roles more equally.
- Postmodernists argue that Parsons’ model ignores diversity, such as same-sex families and lone-parent households.
Parsons on the Functions of the Family
Parsons identified two irreducible functions of the nuclear family in modern society:
- Primary Socialisation of Children
- Families teach children the shared norms and values of society.
- This ensures value consensus and social order.
- For example, children learn gender roles, language, manners, and cultural values through family life.
- Stabilisation of Adult Personalities
- Adults gain emotional support and security from the family, particularly through marriage.
- This stabilises personalities and reduces stress, allowing them to perform effectively in the wider economy.
- Parsons called this the “warm bath” theory – the family provides comfort and relaxation after work.
Evaluation:
- Marxists argue Parsons ignores how families transmit inequality by passing down property and class advantages.
- Feminists claim primary socialisation reinforces gender inequalities, teaching children patriarchal norms.
- Postmodernists say families no longer perform uniform functions – people construct families in diverse ways to meet individual needs.
Parsons and Functional Fit
Parsons argued that families evolve to meet the needs of society. He described this as the “functional fit” between family structure and social needs.
- Pre-industrial society: extended families provided welfare, education, and work roles.
- Industrial society: nuclear families perform fewer but more specialised functions (primary socialisation and stabilisation).
Evaluation:
- Critics argue this is too deterministic – it suggests family structures change automatically in response to industrialisation, ignoring human choice and cultural factors.
- Diversity evidence (e.g., Caribbean extended families, Asian multigenerational households) shows not all societies fit Parsons’ model.
Application to AQA and OCR Exams
AQA:
- Parsons can be used in essays on family diversity, demography, and theories of the family.
- Example: “Evaluate the view that the nuclear family is the most functional family type”. Parsons’ arguments about the functional fit and irreducible functions can be contrasted with feminist, Marxist, and postmodern critiques.
- In 10-mark questions, students may be asked to outline functions of the family – Parsons’ two irreducible functions are key here.
OCR:
- Parsons’ work is useful for exploring theories of family change.
- Students can apply him to debates about industrialisation and the nuclear family.
- OCR often requires evaluation of perspectives: Parsons (functionalism) vs. Marxist critiques (family supports capitalism), feminist critiques (patriarchy), and postmodernists (diversity).
- His work is also relevant to discussions on the division of labour and gender inequality.
Conclusion
Talcott Parsons’ work remains a cornerstone of sociology’s understanding of the family. His theories on the impact of industrialisation, the nuclear family, the division of labour, and the irreducible functions of the family shaped functionalist thinking for decades. While his ideas are criticised for being outdated, patriarchal, and overly deterministic, they provide a vital starting point for examining how families adapt to social change.
For A-level Sociology students, Parsons is best used as a foundation theorist to introduce debates about the family, before bringing in feminist, Marxist, and postmodern perspectives to evaluate and challenge his work. This balance of description, application, and evaluation is essential for success in both AQA and OCR exams.
You can download a teaching Powerpoint and an accompanying handout on Parsons from the links below: